Covering how to use Flares, Chaff, CMS Programs RWR Radar warning receiver and the ECM Electronic countermeasures systems. Support the creation of more conte. How do you use flares in the gameplay? Are they of any particular utility? If so, could you give some examples?
Distributed control systems (DCS) use decentralized elements or subsystems to control distributed processes or manufacturing systems. They offer flexibility, extended equipment life, simplicity of new equipment integration, and centralized maintenance when used in an industrial environment. Characteristics and DesignA distributed control system involves the placement of multiple controllers within a plant or manufacturing process. The controllers are networked to a central console. DCSs aim to centralize plant operations to allow control, monitoring, and reporting of individual components and processes at a single location.
ComponentsDCSs are by definition hierarchical systems, although not all systems share an identical hierarchy.The image below shows a typical DCS. Individual controllers, supervised by master controllers, make up the lowest 'field' or 'plant' level of the hierarchy. The master controllers connect to individual computers and servers, which are further connected to video output devices and a human machine interface (HMI), which is the actual point of user control. DCSs are usually networked using standard protocols such as PROFIBUS and Ethernet, the latter of which is used in this particular system.Image credit:It is important to note that many DCS components can also operate as standalone devices. While a DCS ultimately governs the functionality of its networked components, the same components can often be reprogrammed for use in other applications. RedundancyMost distributed control systems are designed with redundant elements.
Redundant engineering increases a system's reliability by using backup processors in case of primary processor failure. Redundant elements are necessary in DCSs because for two main reasons:. Many DCSs control safety-critical processes in which failure or outage of equipment could cause personal injury or loss of life. A petroleum refinery is a good example of safety-critical plant.
In such an environment, a control system governs flares that constantly burn gas. If the control system fails and the flares cease burning, gas collects and pools, causing an extremely dangerous situation. Redundancy increases equipment reliability, leaving the DCS operator to concentrate on displays, software, and applications.
Because DCS systems require near-constant operator interaction at the HMI, redundancy is crucial.ApplicationsDistributed control systems are most frequently used in batch-oriented or continuous process operations, such as oil refining, power generation, petrochemical manufacturing, papermaking, food and beverage manufacturing, pharmaceutical production, and cement processing. DCSs may control any of a number of different equipment types, including:. Variable speed drives. Quality control systems. Motor control centers (MCC).
Kilns. Manufacturing equipment. Mining equipmentRelationship with PLCs and SCADA DCS vs. PLCDCSs and were historically used in dissimilar applications, but this distinction has blurred more recently. In fact, PLC and DCS architectures are often difficult to distinguish and use many of the same components, including field sensors, I/O modules, HMIs, and supervisory control systems.
Contents.Tactics In contrast to radar-, IR-guided missiles are very difficult to find as they approach aircraft. They do not emit detectable radar, and they are generally fired from behind, directly toward the engines. In most cases, pilots have to rely on their wingmen to spot the missile's smoke trail and alert them. Since IR-guided missiles have a shorter range than their radar-guided counterparts, good situational awareness of altitude and potential threats continues to be an effective defense. More advanced systems can detect missile launches automatically from the distinct thermal emissions of a missile's rocket motor.Once the presence of a 'live' IR missile is indicated, flares are released by the aircraft in an attempt to the missile; some systems are automatic, while others require manual jettisoning of the flares.The aircraft would then pull away at a sharp angle from the flare (and the terminal trajectory of the missile) and reduce engine power in attempt to cool the thermal signature. Optimally, the missile's seeker head is then confused by this change in temperature and flurry of new signatures, and therefore follows the flare(s) rather than the aircraft.
![Flares Flares](/uploads/1/2/4/1/124150781/410878457.jpg)
The most modern IR-guided missiles have sophisticated on-board electronics that help discriminate between flares and targets, reducing the effectiveness of countermeasures.Since insurgents and terrorists are increasingly targeting helicopters with missiles, because helicopters are slower-moving, there is an increasing trend to equip military helicopters with flare countermeasures. Consequently, flare dispensers are now fitted to helicopters. Indeed, almost all of the UK's helicopters, whether they are transport or attack models, are equipped with flare dispenser or missile approach warning systems. Similarly, the US armed forces (in particular the US Army) have adopted defensive technology on their helicopters. Usage Apart from military use, some civilian aircraft are also equipped with countermeasure flares, against: the airline, having been the target of the failed, in which were fired at an airliner while taking off, began equipping its fleet with radar-based, automated flare release countermeasures from June 2004.
This caused concerns in some European countries, which proceeded to ban such aircraft from landing at their airports. C-130 flare and dispensers, 1997A flare goes through three main stages: ignition, deployment, and decoying.Ignition Most flares, like the MJU-27A/B flares, must be kept in an airtight storage compartment before deployment. These flares, known as flares, are made of special materials that ignite when they come in contact with the air. This is a safety and convenience factor, since attempting to ignite a flare inside the fuselage and then deploying it is risky. However pyrotechnic flares (such as the MJU-32) also exist, and offer their own safety benefit; requiring an external ignition method, an accidental leak or puncture in the storage compartment would not result in a catastrophic fire on board the aircraft as with a pyrophoric flare.Deployment Flares are most commonly gravity-fed from a dispenser inside the aircraft's fuselage. These dispensers can be programmed by the pilot or ground crew to dispense flares in short intervals, one at a time, long intervals, or in clusters.
Most currently used flares are of the pyrophoric variety, and thus the dispensers do not have to ignite and deploy the flare at the same time. With pyrotechnic flares, a lanyard automatically pulls off a friction cap covering the exposed end of the flare as it falls from the dispenser. A friction surface inside the cap rubs against the exposed end of the flare (similar to a match-head and striking surface) and ignites the flare.Decoying Flares burn at thousands of degrees, which is much hotter than the exhaust of a jet engine. IR missiles seek out the hotter flame, believing it to be an aircraft in or the beginning of the engine's exhaust source.As the more modern infrared seekers tend to have spectral sensitivity tailored to more closely match the emissions of airplanes and reject other sources (the so-called CCM, or ), the modernized decoy flares have their emission spectrum optimized to also match the radiation of the airplane (mainly its engines and engine exhaust). In addition to spectral discrimination, the CCMs can include trajectory discrimination and detection of size of the radiation source.The newest generation of the uses a dual IR and seeker head, which allows for a redundant tracking solution, effectively negating the effectiveness of modern decoy flares (according to the ). While research and development in flare technology has produced an IR signature on the same wavelength as hot engine exhaust, modern flares still produce a notably (and immutably) different UV signature than an aircraft engine burning kerosene jet-fuel.Materials used. Releasing flares.For the infrared generating charge, two approaches are possible: pyrotechnic and pyrophoric.As stored, chemical-energy-source IR-decoy flares contain compositions, liquid or solid pyrophoric substances, or liquid or solid highly substances.Upon ignition of the decoy flare, a strongly exothermal reaction is started, releasing infrared energy and visible smoke and flame, emission being dependent on the chemical nature of the payload used.There is a wide variety of calibres and shapes available for aerial decoy flares.
Due to volume storage restrictions on board platforms, many aircraft of American origin use square decoy flare cartridges. Nevertheless, cylindrical cartridges are also available on board American aircraft, such as MJU 23/B on the or MJU-8A/B on the; however, these are used mainly on board French aircraft and those of Russian origin, e.g. PPI-26 IW on the. A sectional of the typical LLU-2B ground illumination flareOther payloads provide large amounts of hot upon combustion and thus provide a temperature-independent in the wavelength range between 3 and 5 μm. Typical pyrotechnic payloads of this type resemble and are often made up from and hydrogen lean organic fuels.Other spectrally balanced payloads are made up similarly as and contain (NC), and other esters of nitric acid or as oxidizers such as e.g.
And nitro compounds and as high energy fuels. The main advantage of the latter payloads is their low visibility due to the absence of metals such as sodium and potassium that may be either easily thermally excited and give prominent emissions or give condensed reaction products (such as and ), which would cause a distinct smoke trail.Pyrophoric flares Pyrophoric flares work on the principle of ejecting a special pyrophoric material out of an airtight cartridge, usually using a, e.g. A small pyrotechnic charge or pressurized gas. The material then self-ignites in contact with air.
The materials can be solid, e.g. Iron platelets coated with, or liquid, often compounds; e.g. Alkyl aluminium compounds, e.g. Pyrophoric flares may have reduced effectiveness at high altitudes, due to lower air temperature and lower availability of oxygen; however oxygen can be co-ejected with the pyrophoric fuel.The advantage of alkyl aluminium and similar compounds is the high content of carbon and hydrogen, resulting in bright emission lines similar to spectral signature of burning jet fuel. Controlled content of solid combustion products, generating continuous, allows further matching of emission characteristics to the net infrared emissions of fuel exhaust and hot engine components.The flames of pyrophoric fuels can also reach the size of several metres, in comparison with about less than one metre flame of MTV flares. The trajectory can be also influenced by tailoring the aerodynamic properties of the ejected containers.Solid pyrophoric payloads are based on iron platelets coated with a porous aluminium layer.
Based on the very high specific surface area of aluminium those platelets instantaneously oxidize upon contact with air. In contrast to triethylaluminium combustion, these platelets yield a temperature-dependent signature.Highly flammable payloads These payloads contain as an energetic filler. The red phosphorus is mixed with organic binders to give brushable pastes that can be coated on thin platelets.
The combustion of those platelets yields a temperature-dependent signature. Endergonic additives such as highly dispersed or may further lower the combustion temperature. See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to.References.